Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection

This fourth edition of the classic textbook has been updated and revised by a renowned team of experienced health physicists and book authors, to include current physiokinetic and dosimetric models as recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection. In addition, all units are now given using the SI system, making the book even more useful to an international audience, while the sections on statistics have been completely rewritten to make them more accessible.

As a result, the text offers advanced students and professionals comprehensive coverage of the major concepts behind the origins and transport of ionizing radiation in matter. It covers the detection and measurement of radiation and the statistical interpretation of the data, thoroughly describing the procedures that are used to protect humans and the environment from the potential harmful effects. Throughout, the basic principles are elucidated using numerous worked examples that exemplify practical applications and each chapter includes problem sets (with partial answers) and extensive tables and graphs for continued use as a reference work.

James S. Bogard is a Senior Health Physicist in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Nuclear Engineering and Anthropology at the University of Tennessee. He is the author or co-author of over 85 articles, technical reports and presentations, including a workbook of health physics problems and solutions. Dr. Bogard is a past president of the American Academy of Health Physics, a Fellow of the Health Physics Society and a Distinguished Alumnus of Texas State University.

Darryl J. Downing is Vice President, Statistical and Quantitative Sciences, at GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceutical company. He was previously a member of the research staff at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and led the Statistics Group for 10 of his 20 years at ORNL. Dr. Downing graduated from the University of Florida in 1974 with a Ph.D. in Statistics. He has authored over 50 publications and has been a Fellow of the American Statistical Association since 2002. He is also a member of the International Statistics Institute since 1997 and serves on the editorial board for Pharmaceutical Statistics.

Robert L. Coleman is a Senior Scientist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Technical Lead for in-vivo radio bioassay measurements. He manages the technical and day-to-day aspects of whole body, lung and organ measurements for gamma and x-ray emitting radionuclides in support of the ORNL radiation dosimetry program.

Keith F. Eckerman is Staff Scientist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the Energy and Environmental Sciences Divison. He obtained his Ph.D in Radiological Physics from Northwestern University and joined the Oak Ridge National Laboratory as leader of the Dosimetry Research Group after working at Argonne National Laboratory and with the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. He is a member of Committee 2 of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and Chairman of its Task Group on Dose Calculations. In 1999 he received the Distinguished Scientific Achievement Award from the Health Physics Society and in 2001 the Loevinger-Berman Award from the Society of Nuclear Medicine.

James E. Turner (1930-2008) was a retired Corporate Fellow from Oak Ridge National Laboratory and an Adjunct Professor of Nuclear Engineering at the University of Tennessee. In addition to extensive research and teaching both in the U. S. and abroad, Dr. Turner served on the editorial staffs of several professional journals, including Health Physics and Radiation Research, and was active in a number of scientific organizations.

ABOUT ATOMIC PHYSICS AND RADIATION
Classical Physics
Discovery of X-Rays
Some Important Dates in Atomic and Radiation Physics
Important Dates in Radiation Protection
Sources and Levels of Radiation Exposure
Suggested Reading

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ATOMIC RADIATION
The Atomic Nature of Matter (ca. 1900)
The Rutherford Nuclear Atom
Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
Semiclassical Mechanics, 1913-1925
Quantum Mechanics
The Pauli Exclusion Principle
Atomic Theory of the Periodic System
Molecules
Solids and Energy Bands
Continuous and Characteristic X Rays
Auger Electrons
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

THE NUCLEUS AND NUCLEAR RADIATION
Nuclear Structure
Nuclear Binding Energies
Alpha Decay
Beta Decay (beta-)
Gamma-Ray Emission
Internal Conversion
Orbital Electron Capture
Positron Decay (beta+)
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Activity
Exponential Decay
Specific Activity
Serial Radioactive Decay
Natural Radioactivity
Radon and Radon Daughters
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

INTERACTION OF HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLES WITH MATTER
Energy-Loss Mechanisms
Maximum Energy Transfer in a Single Collision
Single-Collision Energy-Loss Spectra
Stopping Power
Semiclassical Calculation of Stopping Power
The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power
Mean Excitation Energies
Table for Computation of Stopping Powers
Stopping Power of Water for Protons
Range
Slowing-Down Time
Limitations of Bethe's Stopping-Power Formula
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

INTERACTION OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
Energy-Loss Mechanisms
Collisional Stopping Power
Radiative Stopping Power
Radiation Yield
Range
Slowing-Down Time
Examples of Electron Tracks in Water
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

PHENOMENA ASSOCIATED WITH CHARGED-PARTICLE TRACKS
Delta Rays
Restricted Stopping Power
Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
Specific Ionization
Energy Straggling
Range Straggling
Multiple Coulomb Scattering
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

INTERACTION OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
Interaction Mechanisms
Photoelectric Effect
Energy-Momentum Requirements for Photon Absorption by an Electron
Compton Effect
Pair Production
Photonuclear Reactions
Attenuation Coefficients
Energy-Transfer and Energy-Absorption Coefficients
Calculation of Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

NEUTRONS, FISSION, AND CRITICALITY
Introduction
Neutron Sources
Classification of Neutrons
Interactions with Matter
Elastic Scattering
Neutron-Proton Scattering Energy-Loss Spectrum
Reactions
Energetics of Threshold Reactions
Neutron Activation
Fission
Criticality
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

METHODS OF RADIATION DETECTION
Ionization in Gases
Ionization in Semiconductors
Scintillation
Photographic Film
Thermoluminescence
Other Methods
Neutron Detection
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

STATISTICS
The Statistical World of Atoms and Radiation
Radioactive Disintegration-Exponential Decay
Radioactive Disintegration-a Bernoulli Process
The Binomial Distribution
The Poisson Distribution
The Normal Distribution
Error and Error Propagation
Counting Radioactive Samples
Minimum Significant Measured Activity-Type-I Errors
Minimum Detectable True Activity-Type-II Errors
Criteria for Radiobioassay, HPS Nl3.30-1996
Instrument Response
Monte Carlo Simulation of Radiation Transport
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

RADIATION DOSIMETRY
Introduction
Quantities and Units
Measurement of Exposure
Measurement of Absorbed Dose
Measurement of X- and Gamma-Ray Dose
Neutron Dosimetry
Dose Measurements for Charged-Particle Beams
Determination of LET
Dose Calculations
Other Dosimetric Concepts and Quantities
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
Time Frame for Radiation Effects
Physical and Prechemical Chances in Irradiated Water
Chemical Stage
Examples of Calculated Charged-Particle Tracks in Water
Chemical Yields in Water
Biological Effects
Sources of Human Data
The Acute Radiation Syndrome
Delayed Somatic Effects
Irradiation of Mammalian Embryo and Fetus
Genetic Effects
Radiation Biology
Dose-Response Relationships
Factors Affecting Dose Response
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

RADIATION-PROTECTION CRITERIA AND EXPOSURE LIMITS
Objective of Radiation Protection
Elements of Radiation-Protection Programs
The NCRP and ICRP
NCRP/ICRP Dosimetric Quantities
Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection
Current Exposure Limits of the NCRP and ICRP
Occupational Limits in the Dose-Equivalent System
The "2015 ICRP Recommendations"
ICRU Operational Quantities
Probability of Causation
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

EXTERNAL RADIATION PROTECTION
Distance, Time, and Shielding
Gamma-Ray Shielding
Shielding in X-Ray Installations
Protection from Beta Radiation
Neutron Shielding
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

INTERNAL DOSIMETRY AND RADIATION PROTECTION
Objectives
ICRP Publication
Methodology
ICRP-30 Dosimetric Model for the Respiratory System
ICRP-66 Human Respiratory Tract Model
ICRP-30 Dosimetric Model for the Gastrointestinal Tract
Organ Activities as Functions of Time
Specific Absorbed Fraction, Specific Effective Energy, Committed Quantities
Number of Transformations in Source Organs over 50 Y
Dosimetric Model for Bone
ICRP-30 Dosimetric Model for Submersion in a Radioactive Cloud
Selected ICRP-30 Metabolic Data for Reference Man
Suggested Reading
Problems
Answers

APPENDIX
A Physical Constants
B Units and Conversion Factors
C Some Basic Formulas of Physics (MKS and CCS Units)
D Selected Data on Nuclides
E Statistical Derivations

Index