A History of China

The book offers a complete political, economic social, and cultural history of China, covering the majo events and trends. It differs from other histories of the country in presenting China as part of a larger world. Although it emphasizes events within China, it also portrays China in the context of global developments, from its earliest interactions with local neighbors to later relatinships with countries across Asia and around the world. At the same time, the book depicts the role of non-Chinese ethnic groups in China, including Tibetans and Uyghurs, and analyzes the role of Mongol and Manchu rulers and their impact on Chinese society. Drawing on the latest scholarship, the author goes beyond traditional accounts of Imperial families and officials to discuss groups such as peasants, women, merchants, and artisans, who have traditionally been left out of he narrative. In doing so, he provides a rich and nuanced history of one of the contemporary world's most dynamic societies. The second edition will build on the success of the first but will include new scholarship in the field and more recent events and trends.

Morris Rossabi, PhD, is Distinguished Professor of History at City University of New York and Adjunct Professor at Columbia University. He is the author of several celebrated works on Asian history and has collaborated on exhibitions at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Cleveland Museum of Art.

Series Editor’s Preface xi
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
List of Illustrations xxi
List of Maps xxv
A Note on Romanization xxvi

PART I CHINA AMONG “BARBARIANS” 1
1 - Early History, to 1027 BCE 3
Land and Settlement 3
Early Mankind 5
Agricultural Revolution in the Neolithic Era 6
Xia: The First Dynasty? 12
The Shang and the Origins of Chinese Civilization 16
Oracle Bones 17 Ritual Objects as Historical Sources 19
Shang Society 21
Notes 23
Further Reading 24

2 - Classical China, 1027–256 BCE 25
“Feudalism”? 25
Changes in Social Structure 31
Political Instability in the Eastern Zhou 31
Transformations in the Economy 35
Hundred Schools of Thought 36
Daoism 38
Popular Religions 41
Confucianism 42
Mohism 48
Legalism 50
Book of Odes and Book of Documents 53
Secularization of Arts 56
Notes and Further Reading 57

3 - The First Chinese Empires, 221 BCE–220 CE 59
Development of the Qin State 61
Qin Achievements 63
Failures of the Qin 66
Han and New Institutions 70
Han Foreign Relations 73
Emperor Wu’s Domestic Policies and Their Ramifications 78
Wang Mang: Reformer or Usurper? 81
Restoration of a Weaker Han Dynasty 82
Spiritual and Philosophical Developments in the Han 86
Han Literature and Art 89
Further Reading 96

4 - Chaos and Religious and Political Responses, 220–581 97
Three Kingdoms 97
Rise of South China 100 Foreigners and North China 102
Northern Wei 104
Spiritual Developments, Post-Han 109
Buddhism Enters China 110
Literature, Science, and the Arts in a Period of Division 116
Notes and Further Reading 121

PART II CHINA AMONG EQUALS 123

5 - Restoration of Empire under Sui and Tang, 581–907 125
Sui: First Step in Restoration 127
Disastrous Foreign Campaigns 132
Origins of the Tang 133
Taizong: The Greatest Tang Emperor 135
Tang Expansionism 137
Irregular Successions and the Empress Wu 139
Tang Cosmopolitanism 142
Arrival of Foreign Religions 144
Glorious Tang Arts 151
Decline of the Tang 153
Tang Faces Rebellions 157
Uyghur Empire and Tang 158
Tang’s Continuing Decline 160
Suppression of Buddhism 162
Final Collapse 164
Efflorescence of Tang Culture 166
Notes and Further Reading 171

6 - Post-Tang Society and the Glorious Song, 907–1279 173
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 173
Song: A Lesser Empire 177
A New Song Elite 179
Neo-Confucianism: A New Philosophy 182
Attempts at Reform 183
Women and the Song 188
The Khitans and the Liao Dynasty 190
Expansion of Khitan Territory 192
Preservation of Khitan Identity 192
Fall of the Liao 194
Xia and Jin: Two Foreign Dynasties 195
Song Arts 197
Southern Song Economic and Cultural Sophistication and Political Instability 202
Notes and Further Reading 206

PART III CHINA AND THE MONGOL WORLD 209

7 - Mongol Rule in China, 1234–1368 211
Rise of Chinggis Khan 213
Legacy of Chinggis Khan 215
Expansion and Early Rule of Empire 215
Sorghaghtani Beki, Möngke, and Khubilai 217
Unification of China 218
Khubilai’s Policies 219
Multiethnic and Multireligious China 220
Khubilai and Chinese Culture 222
Decline of the Yuan 226
Legacy of the Mongols 229
Notes and Further Reading 231

8 - Ming: Isolationism and Involvement in the World, 1368–1644 233
A More Powerful State 236
Opening to the Outside World 240
A Costly Failure 244 Conspicuous Consumption 245
Arts in the Ming 246 Neo-Confucianism: School of the Mind 251
A Few Unorthodox Thinkers 253 Ming Literature 254
Buddhism: New Developments 258
Social Development and Material Culture 259
Violence in the Sixteenth Century 261
Fall of the Ming Dynasty 263
Further Reading 267

PART IV CHINA IN GLOBAL HISTORY 269

9 - Early Qing: A Manchu Dynasty, 1644–1860 271
Preserving Manchu Identity 275
Kangxi and the Height of the Qing 275
Western Arrival 276 Jesuits in China 278
Expansion of China 280 Qing Cultural Developments 284
Qing Faces Economic Problems 287 Stirrings of Discontent 289
The Western Challenge 290
Opium Wars 293
Explanations for the Decline of the Qing 298
Further Reading 299

10 - Late Qing, 1860–1911 301
Nian and Other Minor Rebellions 302
Taiping Rebellion 303
Other Rebellions 307
Foreign Threats 311
Differing Court Responses to Challenges 313
Antiforeign Acts and Foreign Reactions 317
Losses in Southwest China 319
Japan Emerges 320
Sino–Japanese Conflict 321
Scramble for Concessions and US Response 323
China Humiliated and the Reformers 324
Boxer Movement 326
Court Reforms 329
Fall of the Qing 331
Notes and Further Reading 332

11 - The Republican Period, 1911–1949 333
The 1911 Revolution and Its Aftermath 335
Warlords in Power 337
The May Fourth Movement and Intellectuals in the Post-First World War Period 340
Communist Party 343
Rise of Chiang Kai-shek 346
Guomindang Dominance 349
Communist Party Revival 354
Long March and Aftermath 356
The Sino–Japanese War 358
The Pacific War, the Communists, and the Guomindang 361
Civil War in China 364
Further Reading 366

12 - The Communist Era in China, 1949 Onwards 369
Early Pacification of Border Areas 371
Early Foreign Relations 374
Recovery from Wars 376
Cracks in the Communist World 380
Great Leap Forward 382
Return to Pragmatism 385
An Isolated China 386
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution 387
China Reopens Its Doors 390
Dramatic Changes and Modernization 395
Tiananmen Disturbance of 1989 and Its Aftermath 398
The Present Status of China 403
Further Reading 412
Index 413