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Table of Contents
FOREWORD viiPREFACE ixChapter 1 Introduction: Close Encounters with theStrange 1THE IMPORTANCE OF WHY 2BEYOND WEIRD TO THE ABSURD 4A WEIRDNESS SAMPLER 6Notes 13Chapter 2 The Possibility of the Impossible 14PARADIGMS AND THE PARANORMAL 15LOGICAL POSSIBILITY VERSUS PHYSICAL IMPOSSIBILITY 16THE POSSIBILITY OF ESP 22THEORIES AND THINGS 24ON KNOWING THE FUTURE 25Summary 29Study Questions 29Evaluate these Claims 30Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Chapter 1 Introduction: Close Encounters with theStrange 1THE IMPORTANCE OF WHY 2BEYOND WEIRD TO THE ABSURD 4A WEIRDNESS SAMPLER 6Notes 13Chapter 2 The Possibility of the Impossible 14PARADIGMS AND THE PARANORMAL 15LOGICAL POSSIBILITY VERSUS PHYSICAL IMPOSSIBILITY 16THE POSSIBILITY OF ESP 22THEORIES AND THINGS 24ON KNOWING THE FUTURE 25Summary 29Study Questions 29Evaluate these Claims 30Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
BEYOND WEIRD TO THE ABSURD 4A WEIRDNESS SAMPLER 6Notes 13Chapter 2 The Possibility of the Impossible 14PARADIGMS AND THE PARANORMAL 15LOGICAL POSSIBILITY VERSUS PHYSICAL IMPOSSIBILITY 16THE POSSIBILITY OF ESP 22THEORIES AND THINGS 24ON KNOWING THE FUTURE 25Summary 29Study Questions 29Evaluate these Claims 30Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Notes 13Chapter 2 The Possibility of the Impossible 14PARADIGMS AND THE PARANORMAL 15LOGICAL POSSIBILITY VERSUS PHYSICAL IMPOSSIBILITY 16THE POSSIBILITY OF ESP 22THEORIES AND THINGS 24ON KNOWING THE FUTURE 25Summary 29Study Questions 29Evaluate these Claims 30Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
PARADIGMS AND THE PARANORMAL 15LOGICAL POSSIBILITY VERSUS PHYSICAL IMPOSSIBILITY 16THE POSSIBILITY OF ESP 22THEORIES AND THINGS 24ON KNOWING THE FUTURE 25Summary 29Study Questions 29Evaluate these Claims 30Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
THE POSSIBILITY OF ESP 22THEORIES AND THINGS 24ON KNOWING THE FUTURE 25Summary 29Study Questions 29Evaluate these Claims 30Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
ON KNOWING THE FUTURE 25Summary 29Study Questions 29Evaluate these Claims 30Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Study Questions 29Evaluate these Claims 30Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Discussion Questions 30Field Problem 30Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Critical Reading and Writing 31Suggested Readings 31Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Notes 32Chapter 3 Arguments Good, Bad, and Weird 33CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
CLAIMS AND ARGUMENTS 34DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 39INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 42Enumerative Induction 42Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Analogical Induction 46Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, or Inference to the Best Explanation) 47INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
INFORMAL FALLACIES 49Unacceptable Premises 49Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Begging the Question 49False Dilemma 49Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Irrelevant Premises 50Equivocation 50Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Composition 50Division 51Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Appeal to the Person 51Genetic Fallacy 51Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Appeal to Authority 51Appeal to the Masses 52Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Appeal to Tradition 52Appeal to Ignorance 52Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Appeal to Fear 53Straw Man 53Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Insufficient Premises 53Hasty Generalization 53Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Faulty Analogy 54False Cause 54Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Slippery Slope 54STATISTICAL FALLACIES 55Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Misleading Averages 55Missing Values 55Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Hazy Comparisons 56Summary 56Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Study Questions 57Evaluate these Claims 58Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Discussion Questions 59Field Problem 59Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Critical Reading and Writing 60Suggested Readings 60Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Notes 61Chapter 4 Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence 62BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
BABYLONIAN KNOWLEDGE-ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES 63PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 64 REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
REASONS AND EVIDENCE 65EXPERT OPINION 71COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
COHERENCE AND JUSTIFICATION 74SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 75THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
THE APPEAL TO FAITH 77THE APPEAL TO INTUITION 79THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
THE APPEAL TO MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 81ASTROLOGY REVISITED 84Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Summary 90Study Questions 91Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Evaluate these Claims 91Discussion Questions 91Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Field Problem 91Critical Reading and Writing 92Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Suggested Readings 92Notes 93Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Chapter 5 Looking for Truth in PersonalExperience 96SEEMING AND BEING 97PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
PERCEIVING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE 99Perceptual Constancies 99The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
The Role of Expectation 100Looking for Clarity in Vagueness 101The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
The Blondlot Case 105 “Constructing” UFOs 107REMEMBERING: WHY YOU CAN’T ALWAYS TRUST WHAT YOU RECALL 111CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
CONCEIVING: WHY YOU SOMETIMES SEE WHAT YOU BELIEVE 118Denying the Evidence 118Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Subjective Validation 120Confirmation Bias 126The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
The Availability Error 130The Representativeness Heuristic 134Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Anthropomorphic Bias 136Against All Odds 139 ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE: WHY TESTIMONIALS CAN’T BE TRUSTED 142The Variable Nature of Illness 144The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
The Placebo Effect 146Overlooked Causes 147SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: WHY CONTROLLED STUDIES CAN BE TRUSTED 148Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Summary 150Study Questions 151Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Evaluate these Claims 151Discussion Questions 152Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Field Problem 152Critical Reading and Writing 152Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Suggested Readings 153Notes 153Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Chapter 6 Science and Its Pretenders 158SCIENCE AND DOGMA 159SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
SCIENCE AND SCIENTISM 160SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY 161CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
CONFIRMING AND REFUTING HYPOTHESES 166CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 171Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Testability 172Fruitfulness 174Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Scope 177Simplicity 178Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Conservatism 180CREATIONISM, EVOLUTION, AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY 181Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Scientific Creationism 183Intelligent Design 191PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
PARAPSYCHOLOGY 197Summary 211Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Study Questions 212Evaluate these Claims 213Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Discussion Questions 213Field Problem 213 Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Critical Reading and Writing 213Suggested Readings 214Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Notes 215Chapter 7 Case Studies in the Extraordinary 220THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
THE SEARCH FORMULA 222Step 1: State the Claim 223Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Step 2: Examine the Evidence for the Claim 223Step 3: Consider Alternative Hypotheses 224Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Step 4: Rate, According to the Criteria of Adequacy, Each Hypothesis 225HOMEOPATHY 227INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
INTERCESSORY PRAYER 231UFO ABDUCTIONS 234COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
COMMUNICATING WITH THE DEAD 247NEAR-DEATH EXPERIENCES 252GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
GHOSTS 267CONSPIRACY THEORIES 275Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Summary 287Study Questions 288Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Evaluate these Claims 288Field Problem 289Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Critical Reading and Writing 289Suggested Readings 290Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Notes 290Chapter 8 Relativism, Truth, and Reality 295WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
WE EACH CREATE OUR OWN REALITY 297REALITY IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED 301REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
REALITY IS CONSTITUTED BY CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES 306THE RELATIVIST’S PETARD 311FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
FACING REALITY 313Summary 315Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Study Questions 316Evaluate these Claims 316Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Discussion Questions 316 Field Problem 316Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Critical Reading and Writing 317Suggested Readings 318Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
Notes 318CREDITS C-1INDEX I -1
INDEX I -1
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