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Section I The Study of Ethics 1
CHAPTER 1 Ethics: An Overview 3
What Is Ethics? 5
Normative and Theoretical Ethics 8
Philosophy and the Search for Wisdom 12
Metaphysics and the Study of Human Nature 17
Moral Knowledge: Can Moral Beliefs Be True? 24
Summary 28
CHAPTER 2 Moral Reasoning 30
The Three Levels of Thinking 31
Moral Analysis and Praxis 35
Overcoming Resistance 37
The Role of Is and Ought Statements in Ethics 44
Recognizing and Constructing Moral Arguments 47
Avoiding Informal Fallacies 52
Resolving Moral Dilemmas 65
A Final Word 70
Summary 70
CHAPTER 3 Conscience and Moral Development 72
Ethics and Human Development 72
Conscience: Culturally Relative or Universal? 74
The Affective and Cognitive Sides of the Conscience 82
Lawrence Kohlberg: The Stage Theory of Moral Development 90
Carol Gilligan: The Care Perspective 95
The Four Components of Moral Behavior 99
Moral Maturity: Moving Beyond Ethical Relativism 105
Summary 107
Section II Ethical Relativism 109
CHAPTER 4 Ethical Subjectivism: Morality Is Just a Matter of Personal Feeling 111
What Is Ethical Subjectivism? 111
What Ethical Subjectivism Is Not 114
The Roots of Ethical Subjectivism in Romantic Sentimentalism 119
The Kitty Genovese Syndrome 123
Critique of Ethical Subjectivism 125
Summary 128
- The Basic Idea of Ethical Subjectivism by James Rachels 129
- Student Relativism by Stephen A. Satris 131
CHAPTER 5 Divine Command Theory and Civil Religion 133
Religion and Morality 134
The Divine Command Theory 135
Critique of Divine Command Theory 139
Civil Religion, Society, and National Morality 143
Religion and the Moral Community 149
Does Morality Need Religion? 152
Summary 156
- Euthyphro by Plato 156
CHAPTER 6 Cultural Relativism: Is Morality Dependent on Culture? 159
What Is Cultural Relativism? 160
What Cultural Relativism Is Not 162
Distinguishing between Cultural and Sociological Relativism 166
Social Darwinian Ethics: The Concept of Moral Progress 170
Ruth Benedict: Cultural Relativism as a Protest against Social Darwinism 172
Cultural Relativism and the Moral Community 176
Cultural Relativism, Cross-Cultural Criticism, and Moral Progress 184
The Holocaust and Disillusionment with Cultural Relativism 188 Critique of Cultural Relativism 191
Summary 196
- Anthropology and the Abnormal by Ruth Benedict 197
Section III Morality as Universal 199
CHAPTER 7 Ethical Egoism: Morality Is Acting in Our Best Self-Interest 201
What Is Ethical Egoism? 202
Thomas Hobbes: Psychological Egoism 204
Ayn Rand: Objectivist Ethics and Rational Ethical Egoism 209
Ethical Egoism and Laissez-Faire Capitalism 212
Ethical Egoism and the Moral Community 220
Self-Interest and Happiness 222
Critique of Ethical Egoism 224
Summary 228
- Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes 229
- The Fountainhead by Ayn Rand 231
CHAPTER 8 Utilitarianism: The Greatest Happiness Principle 233
Utilitarianism and the Principle of Utility 234
Jeremy Bentham: Utilitarianism and Social Reform 239
John Stuart Mill: Reformulation of Utilitarianism 245
Mo Tzu: Utilitarianism as Universal Love 250
Utilitarianism and the Moral Community 252
The Principle of Utility in Public Policy 256
Critique of Utilitarianism 262
Summary 267
- An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation by Jeremy Bentham 268
- Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill 269
CHAPTER 9 Natural Law Theory: Morality is Part of Rational Nature 271
What is Natural Law Ethics? 271
Thomas Aquinas: Catholic Natural Law Ethics 274
Just War Theory 278
Henry David Thoreau: Natural Law Theory, and Civil Disobedience 280
Natural Law Theory and Contemporary Moral Issues 287
Critique of Natural Law Theory 292
Summary 294
- The Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas 295
- On the Duty of Civil Disobedience by Henry David Thoreau 296
CHAPTER 10 Deontology: The Ethics of Duty 299
Deontology and Duty 299
Immanuel Kant: The Categorical Imperative 302
The Good Will and Proper Self-Esteem 308
Confucius: Duty and the Community 314
Is the Duty Not to Lie Absolute? 316
Prima Facie Deontology 321
The Duty of Justice 327
Summary 337
- The Analects of Confucius by Arthur Waley, Translator 338
- Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Ethics by Immanuel Kant 340
CHAPTER 11 Rights Ethics 342
The Emergence of Rights Ethics in Modern Society 343
John Locke: Natural Rights Ethics 348
The Marxist Critique of Natural Rights Ethics 354
Rights and Duties 358
Liberty (Negative) Rights and Welfare (Positive) Rights 363
Rights and the Moral Community 369
Critique of Rights Ethics 375
Summary 377
- The Universal Declaration of Human Rights by United Nations 379
- Two Treatises of Civil Government by John Locke 380
CHAPTER 12 Virtue Ethics and the Good Life 383
Virtue Ethics and Character 384
Aristotle: Reason and Virtue 389
Aristotle and Confucius: The Doctrine of the Mean 391
David Hume: Sentiment and Virtue 393
Nel Noddings: Feminist Care Ethics 396
Is Virtue Relative to Culture, Social Status, and Gender? 402
Moral Integrity and the Unity of Virtue 408
Virtue and Moral Education 410
Critique of Virtue Ethics 414
Summary 416
- Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle 417
- Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education by Nel Noddings 419
AFTERWORD Applying Moral Theory in Real Life 421
Glossary 424
Notes 429
Photo Credits 441
Index 442