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Part One: Metaphysics and Epistemology: Existence and Knowledge
Chapter 1 Powerful Ideas 1
Department of Explosives 3
What Is Philosophy? 4
Philosophical Questions 5
Misconceptions 7
Tool Kit 9
Argument 9
The Socratic Method 10
Thought Experiments 10
Reductio ad Absurdum 11
Fallacies 11
Divisions of Philosophy 13
The Benefits of Philosophy 15
Key Terms and Concepts 15
Questions for Discussion and Review 16
Links 16
Suggested Further Readings 16
Chapter 2 The Pre-Socratics 18
The Milesians 20
Pythagoras 22
Heraclitus and Parmenides 23
Empedocles and Anaxagoras 26
The Atomists 28
Checklist 31
Key Terms and Concepts 31
Questions for Discussion and Review 31
Suggested Further Readings 31
Chapter 3 Socrates, Plato 32
Socrates 32
Plato 35
Plato’s Metaphysics: The Theory of Forms 35
Plato’s Theory of Knowledge 38
Plato’s Theory of Love and Becoming 41
SELECTION 3.1 Plato: Apology 43
SELECTION 3.2 Plato: Republic 46
SELECTION 3.3 Plato: Meno 53
Checklist 58
Key Terms and Concepts 58
Questions for Discussion and Review 59
Suggested Further Readings 59
Chapter 4 Aristotle 60
What Is It to Be? 61
Actuality and Possibility 63
Essence and Existence 63
Ten Basic Categories 64
The Three Souls 65
Aristotle and the Theory of Forms 65
Aristotle’s Theory of Knowledge 67
Logic 67
SELECTION 4.1 Aristotle: Metaphysics 68
Checklist 69
Key Terms and Concepts 69
Questions for Discussion and Review 69
Suggested Further Readings 69
Chapter 5 Philosophers of the Hellenistic and Christian Eras 70
Metaphysics in the Roman Empire 72
Plotinus 72
The Rise of Christianity 72
St. Augustine 74
Augustine and Skepticism 76
Hypatia 79
The Middle Ages and Aquinas 81
SELECTION 5.1 St. Augustine: Confessions 87
SELECTION 5.2 St. Thomas Aquinas: Summa Theologica 89
Checklist 91
Key Terms and Concepts 91
Questions for Discussion and Review 91
Suggested Further Readings 91
Chapter 6 The Rise of Modern Metaphysics and Epistemology 92
Descartes and Dualism 96
Skepticism as the Key to Certainty 97
The “Clear and Distinct” Litmus Test 98
Hobbes and Materialism 102
Perception 102
The Alternative Views of Conway, Spinoza, and Leibniz 103
The Metaphysics of Anne Conway 103
Spinoza 105
Leibniz 107
The Idealism of Locke and Berkeley 109
John Locke and Representative Realism 109
George Berkeley and Idealism 110
Material Things as Clusters of Ideas 112
Berkeley and Atheism 113
SELECTION 6.1 René Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy 116
SELECTION 6.2 Benedictus de Spinoza: Ethics 118
SELECTION 6.3 George Berkeley: Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge 120
Checklist 122
Key Terms and Concepts 122
Questions for Discussion and Review 123
Suggested Further Readings 123
Chapter 7 The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 124
David Hume 125
The Quarter Experiment 125
Hume on the Self 127
Hume on Cause and Effect 128
Immanuel Kant 130
The Ordering Principles of the Mind 130
Things-in-Themselves 132
The Nineteenth Century 133
The Main Themes of Hegel 135
Arthur Schopenhauer 136
SELECTION 7.1 David Hume: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 138
SELECTION 7.2 Immanuel Kant: Critique of Pure Reason 139
SELECTION 7.3 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: The Philosophy of History 140
SELECTION 7.4 Arthur Schopenhauer: The World as Will and Representation 141
Checklist 143
Key Terms and Concepts 143
Questions for Discussion and Review 144
Suggested Further Readings 144
Chapter 8 The Continental Tradition 145
Brief Historical Overview of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 145
Existentialism 147
Psychoanalysis 152
Two Existentialists 153
Albert Camus 156
Jean-Paul Sartre 159
Sartre and Kant on Ethics 162
You Are What You Do 163
Phenomenology 163
Edmund Husserl 165
Martin Heidegger 166
Poetry 168
Eastern Philosophy 169
Emmanuel Levinas 169
An Era of Suspicion 170
Jorgen Habermas 171
Michel Foucault 173
Structuralism versus Deconstruction 174
Jacques Derrida 175
Gilles Deleuze 177
Alain Badiou 179
Checklist 188
Key Terms and Concepts 188
Questions for Discussion and Review 189
Suggested Further Readings 189
Chapter 9 The Pragmatic and Analytic Traditions 190
Pragmatism 191
Richard Rorty 193
Analytic Philosophy 194
What Analysis Is 194
A Brief Overview of Analytic Philosophy 195
Language and Science 199
Experience, Language, and the World 202
Antirepresentationalism 207
Wittgenstein’s Turnaround 208
Quine, Davidson, and Kripke 211
Willard Van Orman Quine 211
Donald Davidson 213
Saul Kripke 213
Ontology 215
Meta-Ontology 216
Philosophical Questions in Quantum Mechanics 217
Checklist 232
Key Terms and Concepts 232
Questions for Discussion and Review 232
Suggested Further Readings 232
Part Two: Moral and Political Philosophy
Chapter 10 Moral Philosophy 234
Skepticism, Relativism, and Subjectivism 235
Egoism 236
Hedonism 237
The Five Main Ethical Frameworks 238
The Early Greeks 239
Plato 239
Aesara, the Lucanian 243
Aristotle 244
Epicureanism and Stoicism 246
Epicureanism 247
The Stoics 247
Christianizing Ethics 250
St. Augustine 250
St. Hildegard of Bingen 252
Heloise and Abelard 254
St. Thomas Aquinas 256
Hobbes and Hume 257
Hobbes 257
Hume 259
Value Judgments Are Based on Emotion, Not Reason 259
Benevolence 260
Can There Be Ethics after Hume? 261
Kant 261
The Supreme Principle of Morality 262
Why You Should Do What You Should Do 263
The Utilitarians 264
Bentham 265
Mill 266
Friedrich Nietzsche 268
SELECTION 10.1 Plato: Gorgias 269
SELECTION 10.2 Aristotle: Ethics 272
SELECTION 10.3 Immanuel Kant: Metaphysics of Morals 277
SELECTION 10.4 John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism 279
Checklist 285
Key Terms and Concepts 285
Questions for Discussion and Review 285
Suggested Further Readings 286
Chapter 11 Political Philosophy 287
Plato and Aristotle 288
Plato 288
Aristotle 289
Natural Law Theory and Contractarian Theory 290
Augustine and Aquinas 291
Hobbes 292
Two Other Contractarian Theorists 296
John Locke 296
Locke and the Right to Property 299
Separation of Power 300
Jean-Jacques Rousseau 301
U.S. Constitutional Theory—Applied Philosophy 304
Natural Law and Rights in the Declaration of Independence 304
Natural Law and Rights in the U.S. Constitution 305
The Right to Privacy 306
Classic Liberalism and Marxism 307
Adam Smith 307
Utilitarianism and Natural Rights 307
Harriet Taylor 308
John Stuart Mill 308
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 311
Marxism 312
The Means of Production versus Productive Relations 313
Class Struggle 314
Capitalism and Its Consequences 314
Alienation 316
Capitalism Is Self-Liquidating 317
Marxism and Communism 317
Anarchism 318
SELECTION 11.1 Plato: Republic 322
SELECTION 11.2 Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan 326
SELECTION 11.3 John Stuart Mill: On Liberty 329
Checklist 332
Key Terms and Concepts 332
Questions for Discussion and Review 332
Suggested Further Readings 333
Chapter 12 Recent Moral and Political Philosophy 334
- E. Moore 334
Normative Ethics and Metaethics 336
Emotivism and Beyond 337
John Rawls, a Contemporary Liberal 340
The Fundamental Requirements of the Just Society 341
The Veil of Ignorance and the Original Position 342
The Two Principles of Social Justice 342
The Rights of Individuals 343
Why Should I Accept Rawls’s Provisions? 343
Robert Nozick’s Libertarianism 345
A Minimal State Is Justified 345
Only the “Night-Watchman” State Does Not Violate Rights 346
The Rights of Individuals 347
Communitarian Responses to Rawls 347
Alasdair MacIntyre and Virtue Ethics 351
Martha Nussbaum 352
Herbert Marcuse, A Recent Marxist 354
The Objectivism of Ayn Rand 357
“Isms” 362
Checklist 370
Key Terms and Concepts 370
Questions for Discussion and Review 371
Suggested Further Readings 371
Part Three: Philosophy of Religion: Reason and Faith
Chapter 13 Philosophy and Belief in God 374
Two Christian Greats 375
Anselm 376
The Ontological Argument 376
Gaunilo’s Objection 377
Aquinas 378
The First Way 378
The Second Way 378
The Third Way 379
The Fourth and Fifth Ways 380
Mysticism 382
Seventeenth-Century Perspectives 385
Descartes 385
Descartes’ First Proof 386
Descartes’ Second Proof 386
Descartes’ Third Proof 386
Leibniz 388
Leibniz and the Principle of Sufficient Reason 388
Leibniz and the Problem of Evil 389
Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Perspectives 390
Hume 391
Hume and the Argument from Design 391
Hume and the Cosmological Argument 393
A Verbal Dispute? 393
Kant 394
What Is Wrong with the Ontological Proof? 395
What Is Wrong with the Cosmological and Teleological Proofs? 396
Belief in God Rationally Justified 396
Kierkegaard 397
Nietzsche 398
James 399
Perspectives 402
God and Logical Positivism 402
Mary Daly: The Unfolding of God 403
Intelligent Design or Evolution? 406
God, the Fine-Tuner 408
Who Needs Reasons for Believing in God? 409
SELECTION 13.1 St. Thomas Aquinas: Summa Theologica 410
SELECTION 13.2 Friedrich Nietzsche 412
Checklist 419
Key Terms and Concepts 419
Questions for Discussion and Review 420
Suggested Further Readings 420
Part Four: Voices
Chapter 14 Feminist Philosophy 422
The First Wave 423
The Second Wave 424
The Third Wave 428
Feminist Moral Theory 430
Sexism and Language 433
Feminist Epistemology 435
French Feminist Philosophy and Psychoanalytical Theory 436
Luce Irigaray 439
Julia Kristeva 440
Hélène Cixous 442
“Laugh of the Medusa” 445
SELECTION 14.1 Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 450
Checklist 462
Key Terms and Concepts 462
Questions for Discussion and Review 462
Suggested Further Readings 462
Chapter 15 Eastern Influences 463
Hinduism 464
Buddhism 468
Buddha 468
Taoism 472
Lao Tzu 473
Sun Tzu 478
Chuang Tzu 479
Confucianism 482
Confucius 482
Mencius 487
Hsün Tzu 490
Zen Buddhism in China and Japan 491
Hui Neng 491
Buddhism in Japan 494
Murasaki Shikibu 495
Dogen Kigen 498
The Philosophy of the Samurai (c. 1100– 1900) 500
The Influence of Confucius 505
The Influence of Zen Buddhism 506
Philosophy East and West 508
SELECTION 15.1 Confucius: Analects 510
Checklist 515
Key Terms and Concepts 515
Questions for Discussion and Review 516
Suggested Further Readings 516
Chapter 16 Postcolonial Thought 517
Historical Background 518
Africa 520
Oral and Traditional Philosophy 521
Person 521
Historiography 522
The Nature of Philosophy 522
The Good Life 523
The Americas 524
African American Thought 527
Social Justice 527
Feminism 528
Afrocentrism 529
Social Activism 530
Latin American Thought 530
Ontology 531
Metaphysics of the Human 531
Gender Issues 532
South Asia 532
Satyagraha 534
Metaphysics 535
Checklist 546
Key Terms and Concepts 546
Questions for Discussion and Review 546
Suggested Further Readings 546
Chapter 17 Four Philosophical Problems 547
Free Will 547
Psychological Determinism 548
Neuroscientific Determinism 549
Causal Determinism 551
Consciousness 552
Dualism 553
Behaviorism 554
Identity Theory 555
Functionalism 556
Zombies 558
The Ethics of Generosity: The Problem of The Gift 559
What Is Art? and Related Problems in Aesthetics 566
What Is Art? 567
A Paradox of Fiction 569
The Puzzle of Musical Expression 571
Envoi 572
Checklist 577
Key Terms and Concepts 577
Questions for Discussion and Review 577
Suggested Further Readings 578
Credits C-1
Index/Glossary I-