
School Consultation
by Erchul, William P.; Martens, Brian K.Buy New
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Summary
Table of Contents
Background | |
Introduction to Consultation | p. 3 |
The Effectiveness of Human Services Consultation | p. 5 |
Historical Influences on the Human Services Consultant Role | p. 6 |
Theoretical Issues | p. 6 |
Professional Issues | p. 7 |
Pragmatic Issues | p. 8 |
Historical Influences on the School Consultant Role | p. 9 |
Developments from the 1940s Through the 1970s | p. 9 |
Developments During the 1980s and 1990s | p. 10 |
Contemporary Developments | p. 11 |
Reconceptualizing Consultation for Today's Schools | p. 12 |
Historical Summary | p. 12 |
Our Definition of School Consultation | p. 12 |
Assumptions of Our Approach to School Consultation | p. 13 |
Topics Not Addressed in Our Approach to School Consultation | p. 14 |
The Rest of the Book | p. 15 |
Problem Solving and Response to Intervention | p. 17 |
Establishing a Context for RTI and the Modern Practice of School Consultation | p. 18 |
Prevention as a Philosophical Influence | p. 18 |
NCLB and IDEIA 2004 as Legislative Influences | p. 19 |
Empirical Influences | p. 20 |
Problem Solving | p. 21 |
What is Problem Solving? | p. 21 |
Problem-Solving Teams | p. 22 |
RTI | p. 24 |
What is RTI? | p. 24 |
RTI Systems of Implementation | p. 24 |
Tier-Based Service Delivery Within RTI | p. 25 |
Assessment and Intervention Methods Within RTI | p. 28 |
Conclusion | p. 29 |
Promoting Change in Schools | p. 31 |
Changing Beliefs, Attitudes, and Behaviors Within Consultation | p. 31 |
The Need for Consultee Change | p. 31 |
Helping the Consultee to Change | p. 33 |
Collaboration: What Is It? | p. 33 |
Should Consultants Influence Consultees and the Process of Consultation? | p. 34 |
Relevance of These Five Studies for School Consultants | p. 38 |
A Clarification of Our Position | p. 39 |
Are There Ethical Questions and Issues of Professional Dissonance Regarding the Use of Influence in Consultation? | p. 39 |
If It Is Not a Collaborative Relationship, Then What Is It? | p. 40 |
The Egalitarian Virus | p. 41 |
General Strategies for Effecting Changes in Human Systems | p. 41 |
Empirical-Rational Approach | p. 42 |
Normative-Reeducative Approach | p. 42 |
Power-Coercive Approach | p. 42 |
Relevance of Chin and Benne's Strategies for School Consultants | p. 43 |
The Bases of Social Power and Their Application to School Consultation | p. 43 |
An Introduction to Social Power Bases and Social Influence | p. 43 |
Coercive Power and Reward Power: Impersonal Forms | p. 45 |
Coercive and Rewind Power: Personal Forms | p. 47 |
Legitimate Power: Position, Reciprocity, Equity, and Responsibility-Dependence | p. 48 |
Expert Power and Referent Power: Positive Forms | p. 49 |
The Expert-Referent Power Dilemma | p. 50 |
Expert and Referent Power: Negative Forms | p. 50 |
Informational Power: Direct and Indirect Forms | p. 51 |
Empirical Studies of Raven's (1992, 1993) Social Power Bases Applied to School Consultation | p. 52 |
Relevance of Social Power Base Research Studies for School Consultants | p. 54 |
Other Means of Influence | p. 54 |
Invoking or Reducing the Power of Third Parties | p. 54 |
Preparatory Devices: Setting the Stage for Social Influence | p. 55 |
The Mode of Influence | p. 57 |
A Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence and Its Application to School Consultation | p. 57 |
The Motivation to Influence | p. 57 |
Assessment of Available Power Bases | p. 59 |
Assessment of the Available Bases in Relation to Target, Power, Preferences, and Inhibitions | p. 59 |
Preparing for the Influence Attempt | p. 59 |
Choice of Power Bases and Mode in Influence Attempts | p. 60 |
Assessing the Effects of Influence | p. 60 |
Conclusion | p. 60 |
Notes | p. 61 |
The School as a Setting for Consultation | p. 63 |
Organizational Traditions in the Public School System | p. 64 |
Classical Organizational Theory | p. 64 |
The Human Relations Movement | p. 66 |
Organizational Behavior Theory | p. 70 |
The Service Structure of Public Schools | p. 71 |
Available Services | p. 71 |
The Refer-Test-Place Sequence | p. 74 |
The Role of Consultation | p. 76 |
School Consultation from an Administrative Perspective | p. 76 |
Factors Influencing the Use of Consultation Services | p. 76 |
The Three Paradoxes of School Consultation | p. 78 |
Consultation Processes and Outcomes | |
Bases of an Integrated Model of School Consultation | p. 83 |
Community Mental Health and Mental Health Consultation Bases | p. 83 |
Population-Oriented Preventive Model | p. 84 |
Crisis Model | p. 85 |
Support Systems Model | p. 86 |
Caplan's Model of Mental Health Consultation | p. 86 |
How the Mental Health Consultant Offers Support to Consultees | p. 90 |
Behavioral Psychology and Behavioral Consultation Bases | p. 91 |
Problem-Solving Model | p. 91 |
Application of Behavior Modification in Natural Settings | p. 92 |
Bergan's Model of Behavioral Consultation | p. 92 |
Interpersonal Influence and Social Power Bases | p. 96 |
Summary of the Bases of an Integrated Model of School Consultation | p. 97 |
Achieving Entry in School Consultation: Entering the Service Delivery Network | p. 97 |
Assessing the School as an Organization: Some General Considerations | p. 98 |
Negotiating the Contract | p. 100 |
Achieving School-Level (Physical) Entry | p. 101 |
Achieving Classroom-Level (Psychological) Entry | p. 102 |
Model Description and Application | p. 105 |
A Critical Appraisal of Consultation Models | p. 105 |
Mental Health Consultation | p. 105 |
Behavioral Consultation | p. 107 |
The Consultative Relationship | p. 110 |
An Integrated Model of School Consultation | p. 110 |
Precursors to School Consultation | p. 113 |
The Problem-Solving Task | p. 115 |
The Social Influence Task | p. 117 |
The Support and Development Task | p. 120 |
Outcomes of School Consultation | p. 124 |
Assessment in School Consultation | p. 127 |
Functional Behavior Assessment | p. 129 |
Indirect Assessment Phase | p. 131 |
Direct Assessment Phase | p. 132 |
Systematic Formative Evaluation | p. 134 |
Brief Experimental Analysis | p. 136 |
Selecting Effective School-Based Interventions | p. 141 |
Effectiveness of Intervention Alternatives | p. 142 |
Results from Meta-Analytic Reviews | p. 142 |
The Role of ABA in School-Based Intervention | p. 143 |
Conceptual Models of Children's Learning and Behavior Problems | p. 144 |
Academic Intervention Models | p. 144 |
Behavioral Intervention Models | p. 147 |
Limitations of ABA Approaches to School-Based Intervention | p. 151 |
Implementation Issues | p. 151 |
Conceptual Relevance | p. 152 |
Treatment Strength | p. 153 |
Treatment Acceptability | p. 153 |
Treatment Integrity | p. 154 |
Key Participants in Consultation | |
Teachers as Consultees | p. 159 |
Perspectives on Teachers and Teaching | p. 159 |
The Complexity of Classroom Teaching | p. 159 |
The Rewards of Teaching | p. 161 |
Major Challenges Facing Teachers Today | p. 162 |
Teacher Recruitment, Attrition, and Retention | p. 164 |
Implications for the School Consultant | p. 164 |
Perspectives on Teachers and School Consultation | p. 165 |
Three Views on Why Teachers Seek Consultation | p. 165 |
Teacher Expectations for Consultation | p. 167 |
What Teachers Do Before Seeking Consultation | p. 169 |
Factors that Distinguish Teachers Who Participate in Consultation from Those Who Do Not | p. 170 |
Increasing the Effectiveness of Consultation with Teachers | p. 171 |
Adapting Consultation to the Teacher's Schedule: The 15-Min Consultation | p. 171 |
Consulting as Part of a Prereferral Intervention/Problem-Solving Team | p. 172 |
Increasing Knowledge/Skill Transfer and Maintenance | p. 174 |
Providing Consultative Support to Teachers | p. 176 |
Students as Clients | p. 177 |
Legislation Governing Service Delivery in the Schools | p. 178 |
Educational Approaches to Classification | p. 180 |
Rationale for Classifying Special Needs Students | p. 181 |
Overview of Childhood Disabilities | p. 182 |
Students Classified as Learning Disabled | p. 185 |
Students Classified as Emotionally Disturbed | p. 187 |
A Contextual Model of Student Achievement | p. 189 |
Variables Limiting Individualized Instruction | p. 189 |
Variables Related to Student Achievement | p. 190 |
Consultation Case Study | p. 193 |
Problem Identification Interview: February 18 | p. 194 |
An Analysis of the First Interview | p. 202 |
Problem Analysis Interview: March 4 | p. 204 |
An Analysis of the Second Interview | p. 212 |
Problem Evaluation Interview: April 9 | p. 214 |
Child Measures | p. 214 |
Teacher/Consultation Case Measures | p. 215 |
Conclusion | p. 215 |
Epilog: The Effective Practice of School Consultation | p. 217 |
References | p. 221 |
Author Index | p. 245 |
Subject Index | p. 253 |
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